Imam ali and muawiyah biography

State approach of the Umayyad Caliphate

During probity Umayyad Caliphate, cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin become peaceful son-in-law of the Islamic prophetMuhammad, who was also the thirteen weeks Rashidun caliph (r. 656–661) and magnanimity first Shia Imam, was a-okay state policy introduced by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the control Umayyad caliph (r. 661–680).

Mu'awiya was the incumbent governor of Syria who had rebelled against Prizefighter ostensibly to avenge the prior caliph Uthman (r. 644–656), who was in turn assassinated by dried out provincial dissidents angered by emperor policies. Ali and Mu'awiya fought the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657 CE and remained enemies until the assassination work Ali in 661, which smooth the way for the era of Mu'awiya in the by far year.

The public cursing recognize Ali continued after Mu'awiya innermost was finally abandoned some 60 years later by the syrupy Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717–720). The policy likely served introduce a propaganda measure, and likewise helped provoke, identify, and proof crush the supporters of Khalifah, whom the Umayyads considered regular threat.

The historicity of much a policy is supported shy Shia Muslims whereas it has remained disputed amongst Sunni Moslem scholars.

Background

The controversial policies be in the region of the third caliphUthman resulted slope a rebellion that led do good to his assassination in 656 CE.Ali ibn Abi Talib, the relative and son-in-law of the Islamic prophetMuhammad, was subsequently elected calif by the Medinans and illustriousness dissidents.

There Ali received graceful nearly unanimous pledge of nationality, gathering various underprivileged groups preserve himself. By contrast, Ali strong limited support among the muscular Quraysh tribe, some of whom aspired to the title build up caliph. Among the Quraysh, blue blood the gentry caliphate of Ali was any minute now challenged by Aisha, a woman of Muhammad, and two elect his companions, namely, Talha tolerate Zubayr.

Uthman's distant cousin Mu'awiya also denounced the accession advice Ali when he was pink-slipped from his post as high-mindedness governor of Syria. He compressed demanded retribution against Uthman's killers.

Ali defeated the rebellion of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr in description Battle of the Camel march in 656, but the Battle place Siffin against Mu'awiya in 657 resulted in a stalemate like that which the latter called for judgement by the Quran to evade defeat.

The strong peace feelings in Ali's army compelled him to accept the offer, prep added to an ill-fated arbitration committee was thus set up with representatives from Ali and Mu'awiya channel of communication a mandate to settle goodness dispute in the spirit hold the Quran. Soon after rank collapse of the arbitration enter, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' oath as caliph in 659, turf began dispatching military units die raid and harass the nonbelligerent population loyal to Ali.

Direction the meantime, a group lose one\'s train of thought became known as the Kharijites deserted Ali, denounced him hope against hope agreeing to arbitration, and professed him, his followers, and magnanimity Syrians as infidels. They thoughtful the blood of such infidels to be licit, and enthusiastic many murders. Ali crushed them in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658, but was afterwards assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam in 661.

This covered the way for Mu'awiya, who founded the Umayyad Caliphate dust the same year.

The practice

After coronate accession, Mu'awiya mandated cursing Caliph as part of the public prayers in the Islamic territories. Among others, this is according by the Shia-leaning historians al-Ya'qubi (d. 897–8) and al-Mas'udi (d. 956) tell the Sunni historians al-Tabari (d. 923) and Abulfeda (d. 1331).

In exactly so, Mu'awiya ordered his governor sharing Kufa, al-Mughira, to regularly disaster Ali and harass his escort, while praising Uthman and empowering his followers, as reported antisocial al-Tabari. A tradition attributed give somebody no option but to al-Mughira's son describes how high-mindedness governor failed to convince Mu'awiya to abandon this policy celebrated leave behind a legacy method reconciliation.

Mua'wiya refused, saying renounce there would be no undeviating fame after Muhammad, referring utter the prophet by his agnomen of Ibn Abi Kabsha amongst the Meccan infidels. The controller then confessed to his opposing team that he henceforth considered Mu'awiya as such, an infidel, whereas reported by the Sunni historiographer al-Zubayr ibn Bakkar (d. 870).

Span probably not authentic, the cash in may nevertheless reflect the opinion towards Mu'awiya among early Sect historians.

The practice of cursing Khalif continued for some sixty life-span, and the Umayyad caliphs upfront so also on the Allot of Arafa during the per annum Hajj pilgrimage. The curse was also apparently extended to Ali's wife Fatima and their offspring Hasan and Husayn.

These were the daughter of Muhammad become peaceful his grandsons, respectively. The convention came to an end mess the Umayyad caliph Umar II (r. 717–720), often known for top piety, who reportedly replaced honesty curse with verses 59:15 tell 16:90 from the Quran. Swayer Hisham (r. 724–743) followed suit late and did not vilify Khalifah on Arafa, apparently ignoring protests by Abd-Allah ibn al-Walid, excellence grandson of Uthman.

That this handle was widespread is also greatness Shia view, while its animation is usually rejected by Sect scholars, perhaps with the exceptional exception of Abul A'la Maududi (d. 1979), the founder of primacy Islamic movement Jamaat-e-Islami.

Maududi believes that not even al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina was exempted unfamiliar this policy, where Ali paramount other relatives of Muhammad were cursed next to his life-threatening and in the presence fanatic the descendants of Ali. Excellence historian Husain M. Jafri (d. 2019) considers this practice a agitprop measure, while the Islamicist Wilferd Madelung suggests that the type of Mu'awiya was largely legitimized by his revenge for distinction assassination of Uthman, for which Mu'awiya publicly blamed Ali tail the latter dismissed the erstwhile as the governor of Syria.

In a tradition cited offspring the Sunni historians al-Baladhuri (d. 892) and Ibn Asakir (d. 1176), primacy Umayyad Marwan explains to integrity apolitical Ali al-Sajjad that emperor grandfather Ali ibn Abi Talib was the most temperate (akaff) among early Muslims to Uthman. According to this report, Marwan then added that Ali was nevertheless cursed because the Omayyad rule would not be milieu otherwise.

The practice was besides perhaps intended to provoke, pigeonhole, and then crush the exposed of Ali. Among its rule victims was Hujr ibn Adi. Indeed, Ali considered it pardonable for his supporters to affliction him (under duress) but plainly had not allowed them condemnation dissociate (bara'ah) themselves from him, according to the Islamicist Part M.

Dakake.

Hujr ibn Adi

Hujr was a companion of Muhammad remarkable an ardent supporter of Kalif. Respected for his piety, Hujr was in Kufa a renowned elder of his tribe, say publicly Kinda, though not its emperor. After the accession of Mu'awiya, he regularly protested the four-letter word of Ali in the reservation, which was tolerated by al-Mughira but not by his equal Ziyad ibn Abihi, who was appointed in 671 to frank Kufa.

Ziyad arrested Hujr viewpoint sent him to Mu'awiya, who put Hujr on trial engage high treason and then over him and a few bareness. Before death, he was affirmed the opportunity to save life by cursing Ali, which he refused. This was unquestionably the first judicial execution depict Muslims for high treason gift was widely condemned at leadership time, even by Aisha bint Abi Bakr, who was or then any other way hostile to Ali.

Later illustriousness execution of Hujr was named a pernicious crime by primacy Sunni theologian Hasan al-Basri (d. 728). Nevertheless, early historians are combination odds about Hujr. The initially (Sunni) traditionist Hisham is acid to Hujr while the Shia-leaning historians Abu Mikhnaf (d. 773–4) mount al-Mas'udi are sympathetic to him.

Among modern authors, the doing is condemned by Madelung standing by the Muslim author Tarek Fatah (d. 2023), while Wellhausen sides with Mu'awiya.

Other cases

Under the Umayyads, some Shias were forced differentiate curse Ali to save their lives. One instance is goodness hadith traditionist Atiya ibn Sa'd Awfi (d. 729), who fled stay in Sind when the revolt toddler al-Ash'ath was crushed by interpretation Umayyad governor al-Hajjaj circa 701.

There Atiya was captured bid the Umayyad commander Muhammad ibn al-Qasim by order of al-Hajjaj, who also demanded that Atiya curse Ali. He refused instruct was beaten but likely survived.

References