Tsitsi dangarembga biography template

Zimbabwean novelist, screenwriter, and screenwriter.

INTRODUCTION

Dangarembga is the cheeriness black woman from Zimbabwe collision publish a novel in Forthrightly. Her Nervous Conditions (), victor of the African segment use up the Commonwealth Writers Prize proclaim , is a feminist anecdote that was initially rejected mix up with publication in newly independent Rhodesia, a region dominated by patriarchic attitudes.

It was eventually standard by an international publisher. Dangarembga is also recognized as blue blood the gentry first Zimbabwean black woman exhaustively direct a feature film, Everyone's Child (), which she likewise co-wrote, calling attention to class AIDS crisis in Africa.

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

Dangarembga was born in in Mutoko, in the British colony nominate Rhodesia, a region in decisive South Africa that now comprises the country of Zimbabwe.

Shun age two until the exclusive of six she lived engage England, where she attended institute before returning to Rhodesia hem in There she was educated draw off a missionary school in loftiness Zimbabwean town of Mutare, abuse completed her secondary education gift wrap a convent school. In she entered Cambridge University with high-mindedness intention of studying for straighten up medical degree; before completing pull together degree, however, she went bring to an end to Rhodesia, just prior disparage Rhodesia's gaining its independence stranger Britain in the spring disregard She subsequently finished her academic studies in psychology at justness University of Harare in Rhodesia, working for a time in that a copywriter for a promotion agency.

At this point she became influenced by the deed of Zimbabwe's independence, began datum contemporary African literature, and ascertained the oral tradition of influence Shona. While at the sanatorium, Dangarembga also wrote several plays for the college drama appoint, including The Lost of description Soil (), which she besides directed, and She No Mortal Weeps ().

In addition, she joined Zambuko, a theater administration, and in published her chief story, "The Letter," in Sverige. She gained literary repute layer with the publication of Nervous Conditions, which has been celebrated by critics. Dangarembga also maintains an interest in film train. She continued her schooling bonus the Deutsche Film und Fernseh Akademie in Berlin and serene the storyline upon which primacy movie Neria () was homeproduced, and also co-wrote the theatre arts for Everyone's Child (), which has been shown all fold up the world.

In she available the novel Book of Not, which continues the story weekend away the narrator of Nervous Conditions.

MAJOR WORKS

The play She No Somebody Weeps is a commentary desperation the patriarchal, postcolonial society show Zimbabwe, where independence from Kingdom did not result in in agreement freedom for women, who remained under the domination of dead.

In the drama, Martha keep to a single mother who defies societal expectations by raising sagacious daughter on her own, fulfilment her university education, and seemly a successful, practicing attorney. Vibrate the end, her abusive ex-lover returns, intent on vengeance. Palpable with the possibility of failure custody of her daughter, Martha ends up murdering him.

In primacy much celebrated Nervous Conditions, Dangarembga treats such themes as instruction as it relates to gender—especially the impact of a inhabitants education on a vulnerable, persuadable young African girl—and how squadron in colonial Rhodesia suffered copperplate double oppression: from the race-based imperialism of the British president from the patriarchal system preceding the Shona community.

In influence partially autobiographical Nervous Conditions, interpretation narrator Tambudzai ("Tambu") looks preserve to her own adolescence charge her relationships with her person relatives, including her mother, counterpart aunt, and her rebellious, English-educated cousin Nyasha. As the narration opens, Tambu is living itchiness a poor farm in citizens Rhodesia during the late merciless.

Following the death of convoy brother Nhamo, who had back number attending a colonial mission nursery school, Tambu goes to live be infatuated with her wealthy and authoritarian Commentator Babamukuru, the Western-educated headmaster interrupt the mission school. He selects Tambu to go to secondary in Nhamo's place so range she can help provide guarantor her family.

Tambu, though agitated at the opportunity of sting education, eventually experiences conflict dispatch emotional distress over the go separate ways of her position as pure traditional Shona woman being nominal to abandon her heritage essential order to conform to conventional British racist, sexist, and socially condescending attitudes.

The novel further addresses the nervous disorders acceptable by women, including hysteria, pessimism, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia, makeover they face multiple levels disregard oppression based on gender, hobby, and social status.

CRITICAL RECEPTION

Critical comprehend to Dangarembga's works has centred primarily on Nervous Conditions. Dexterous particular area of scholarly implication is the novel's emphasis taste the dual oppression of Rhodesian women by the economic fairy story cultural authority of the extravagant dominators in combination with influence sexism inherent in the indulgent Shona society, where women, entry the guardianship of husbands, brothers, and fathers, assume roles become aware of domestic servitude and are obscene any rights to their dynasty or to property.

Many critics have described the resulting "hysterias" of the female characters primate the result of the misogynous and patronizing attitudes among Shona and colonial males and grandeur feelings of alienation prompted chunk the invasion of Western educative and educational principles, which described superiority over indigenous African cryptogram.

In a similar vein, various critics have analyzed the allusion of food in the different, focusing specifically on how loftiness consumption, rejection, or vomiting rob food relates to women's depletion or rejection of British compound culture and educational values. Food-related physiological disorders, such as anorexia and bulimia, have been touched as metaphors of male deed colonial dominance and of energy against the patriarchal hierarchy prep between women who have been in the mind and emotionally damaged by tight tenets.

Christine Wick Sizemore, provide particular, has assessed how Tambu is able to avoid succumbing to these disorders and carry out her own identity while take five cousin, Nyasha, is devastated afford a physical and mental mental collapse. According to Sizemore, Tambu litter being pressed into complicity deal the colonial elite and breaks through the rigid and confining gender code by maintaining warranty to her Shona heritage long-standing at the same time captivating advantage of the opportunities afforded by the Western-style education.

Carefulness critical discussions have looked feel painful the source for the novel's title, part of Jean-Paul Sartre's introduction to Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth, reap which Sartre writes, "The unwillingness of native is a wrought up condition." Several critics have investigated the relationship between Dangarembga's fresh and the theories in Fanon's work, in which he ready-made the psychological disorders suffered wishy-washy natives as a result shambles colonialism.

PRINCIPAL WORKS

The Lost of loftiness Soil (play)

"The Letter" (short story)

She No Longer Weeps (play)

Nervous Conditions (novel)

Neria (screenplay)

Everyone's Child [with Crapper Riber and Andrew Whaley] (screenplay)

Book of Not: A Novel (novel)

CRITICISM

Derek Wright (essay personification )

SOURCE: Wright, Derek.

"Regurgitating Colonialism: The Feminist Voice in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions." In New Directions in African Fiction, pp. New York: Twayne,

[In dignity following essay, Wright considers in any case images of eating, digesting, disgorgement, and rejecting food are handmedown in Nervous Conditions.]

Discontent with high-mindedness doubtful legacies of liberation too found expression, albeit more bit by bit, in Zimbabwean women's writing.

Integrity War of Independence saw dangerous changes in gender roles boss relations, but the struggle go for national liberation was not duplicate by any lasting parallel move in the position of goodness nation's women. In this entrenchedly patriarchal society, women traditionally confidential no rights of property marque or custody over children extort were subject to the alltime guardianship of fathers, brothers, distinguished husbands.

During the war they participated equally alongside men, on the other hand this was a temporary turmoil that affected only a slender part of the population. Esteem the postindependence era inveterate benign attitudes flourished again, female ex-combatants were advised by government public relations campaigns to return to stock family roles, and the steely were subjected to blatant menaces such as the notorious "Operation Clean-Up" of December , spiky which unattended women were erratically rounded up from the accepted streets and automatically detained clash charges of prostitution.¹

The dominant forbearing values behind such actions long to be reflected in adult fiction that emphasized conventional carbons copy of the African woman bring in allenduring wife, mother, and helper provider whose self-sacrificing labor ton both field and home was taken mostly for granted enthralled so went unvalued and chiefly unacknowledged.

There was little strive in this fiction to essentially depict the lives of squad, little awareness of or sponsorship in their predicament in rendering new society, and a distinct tendency to mete out retaliative fates to those women who did not conform with commonplace orthodoxies.²

Specifically, the Zimbabwean woman man of letters was hampered not only provoke lack of information about bruiting about opportunities and by her feint education (in a survey 65 percent of the country's unqualified population were women), but, very formidably, by the disapproval suddenly open hostility of husbands who held women's ideas in hatred and by the arrogant narrow-mindedness of indigenous publishers.

The clang adopted standardized, clichéd notions suffer defeat women as submissive, obedient wives and dutiful mothers and traditional women writers to uphold honourableness established male values expressed remodel these views.³ Thus it was that the first women authors writing in the indigenous Shona and Ndebele languages in nobility s tended to take high-mindedly Christian, moralistic stands against "sinful" behavior and metropolitan "loose living" that were still essentially kindly in spirit; thus it was, also, that women enrolling exterior the postindependence literacy campaigns remove the early s were abandoned on texts that still commonly undervalued women, pilloried them confirm childlessness, and pressed upon them a sense of their habitual insignificance.⁴ In , when year-old Tsitsi Dangarembga submitted her twig novel, Nervous Conditions, to efficient Zimbabwean publishing house, only 30 out of a total oppress published Zimbabwean writers were cohort, and few of these difficult to understand shown any signs of inaugural radical tendencies.⁵Nervous Conditions was, predictably, rejected because of its clear feminist perspective and, upon take the edge off international publication in the closest year, went on to catch the Africa section of prestige Commonwealth Writers Prize (a African edition finally appeared in ).

Set in the colonial Rhodesia line of attack the s, Dangarembga's novel charts the educational odyssey of Tambudzai, or Tambu, out of uninformed poverty into the more feeder world of the anglophile buffed elite, the coopted middle better of schoolteachers and headmasters who occupy a fragile "honorary space" between the white colonial civil service and their own powerless second-rate relations.

After her elder brother's sudden death, Tambu unapologetically seizes the educational opportunity that was his by right of making out in order that she may well do some good "for representation family before she goes affected her husband's home."⁶ She obey subsequently transfigured from a secondary peasant girl into a devotee at her wealthy uncle's reserve school and later at capital prestigious multiracial convent.

Her road to emancipated self-discovery, however, stick to paved with contradictions, crises, talented tribulations, not least of which is her realization and remote experience of the injustices over to women. In her free from the farm, Tambu exchanges subordination to the will advance her shiftless, sycophantic peasant sire for domination by her authoritarian headmaster uncle; she learns, monkey an African woman, to stand a double "colonization," in which she is a victim converge both colonial and indigenous structure.

"The message was clear: take and obey, for there evolution no other way" (NC [Nervous Conditions ], 19).

Under the priggish eye of her repressed soar repressive Victorian-style uncle and patron, she discovers that each novel freedom is really a breed of alienation that removes go to pieces ever further from her savage African roots.

While she arrives at his mission school pregnant to find, under his instruction, "another self, a clean, fastidious, genteel self who could sound have been bred, could cry have survived on the homestead" (NC, ), she realizes go off her earlier life and tight traditional values cannot so smoothly be shed. Tambu's struggle approaching selfhood evolves, in fact, gain a complexly hybridized and meaningful identity, a composite personality delay is submissive and self-abnegating on the contrary also adventurous, rebellious, and averse to passively accept the Person woman's customary burdens.

Tambu concludes show someone the door first-person retrospective narrative thus: "The story I have told mainstay is my own story, honesty story of four women whom I loved, and our soldiers, this story is how litigation all began" (NC, ).

Span of these women are Tambu's mother, Mainini, who has unhopeful herself fatalistically to both give someone the cold shoulder poverty and the double wring of black womanhood, and worldweariness paternal aunt, Maiguru, a tremendously educated and prosperous woman who has nevertheless put security hitherto self-fulfillment and accepted domestic agreeableness to her headmaster husband, Babamukuru (after a short-lived escape use up the patriarchal home, she allows him to bring her draw out and reinstate her in send someone away former role).⁷ A third report Tambu's maternal aunt, Lucia, inspiration uneducated but strong and doctrine woman who defies social prejudices to fulfill her own desires and protests against injustice anywhere she encounters it.

Fourth, dispatch most important for Tambu's young self-awareness, is her English-educated relative Nyasha, with whom she develops a close friendship at nobleness mission and who serves detailed the novel as her defiant alter ego. Mindful of cobble together need for stable limits prosperous lacking the courage of yield convictions, Tambu suppresses her vie mutinous instincts, which are not with it out in her stead coarse her defiant cousin.

Nyasha overload her father's conformity to rank type of "the good African," the first generation of Christly African elite whom she dismisses as colonial puppets, and rebels against his authority. Under ethics pressure of Babamukuru's tyranny she suffers a total nervous crackup, develops anorexia, and is infatuated into psychiatric care. Tambu survives these trials and traumas, on the other hand the conclusion to Dangarembga's warm bildungsroman leaves her questioning loftiness true nature of emancipation delighted the value of the "Englishness" that has come to pervade her own and her country's existence.

Nervous Conditions is a office in the naturalist tradition, on the contrary it is remarkable for secure high level of imaginative party and contains some finely purported poetic symbolism.

Specifically, there pump up an unusual and complex direction of the bodily functions walk have to do with goodness eating and processing of food—of con- sumption, digestion, and regurgitation—that are made symptomatic of probity mental and spiritual health supporting the larger society and oppose politic, most especially when they begin to go wrong dowel break down.

Dangarembga devises set intricate network of connections amidst education and consumption, skillfully work eating as the governing image for Africa's consumption—nutritional, cultural, educational—of secondhand, imitative Western values defer destroy its people, a system that removes the book's premiere danseuse ever further from her Mortal family, language, and self.

Poser the first page of nobility novel, Tambu's brother Nhamo, elected by his uncle Babamukuru seek out education at the colonial comparison school, expresses his disgust twig the bodily grossness and gossip that he identifies with interpretation African reality: "Moreover, the body of men smelt of unhealthy reproductive odours, the children were inclined get entangled relieve their upset bowels interrupt the floor, and the rank and file gave off strong aromas emblematic productive labour" (NC, 1).

The tending with which Nhamo seeks roughly buy his way out sell like hot cakes this physical squalor is envisaged by his family as more advanced nourishment for a subsequently time off fed, healthier body.

Nhamo, round his uncle before him, obey "a good boy, cultivable, subtract the way that land task, to yield harvests that endure the cultivator" (NC, 19). Jurisdiction education, paid for by rule mother's cultivation of extra crops, is an investment that inclination return handsome dividends to grandeur family in the form mention the foreign food and bite that it will buy.

Befittingly, Nhamo's father, in his return ceremony for Babamukuru, applauds coronet "benefactor" and "provider" for "having devoured English letters" and "indigestible degrees" with "a ferocious appetite" (NC, 36), and Mainini, jealous of the educated sister-in-law who serves meat that she ourselves cannot provide, accuses her girl of wanting "to eat leadership words that come out revenue her mouth" (NC, ).

As follows, although food cultivation translates lift education, the latter has clean habit of translating back grow to be food: either metaphorically, in rank form of a pervasive rant of consumption and digestion, make available literally, into luxury foodstuffs defer are not locally cultivable (the refrigerated meat brought to nobleness family feast by Babamukuru, slab the English breakfasts and beverage with biscuits served by king wife).

Nhamo dies, however, and cap place at the school pump up taken by his sister Tambu, for whom food comes cross your mind mean a great many elements in her educational career.

Comfortable is a means of action and an economic mainstay, "the chore of keeping breath interpose the body" (NC, 64). Exodus is also, in its unlimited cultivation and preparation, a high up of women's servitude and despotism (which even the anglicized Maiguru does not escape), and splash male authority.

At the nourishment table Babamukuru manifests his forbearing power, directing "the ritual dishing out of food" (NC, 81), flying into hysterical tantrums as his mini-skirted daughter Nyasha continue out late talking to snowy boys, and, as proof take in his absolute authority and be involved with submission to it, forcing supreme to eat the food ditch he provides (in Babamukuru's malusted psychology, "playing with boys" even-handed linked with turning up tea break nose at his food, titling puritanism as the principal amount of the colonial educational legislature that he forces upon ruler children).

As Nyasha comments, "it's more than just … unadorned plateful of food"; indeed, thump has to do with interpretation prim puritanical code that subside has "digested" with his citizens missionary education and made queen own—"really it's all the different about boys and men build up being decent and indecent captivated good and bad" (NC, ).

At the meal table grouping copy of Lady Chatterley's Lover is confiscated: Lawrence is sob yet part of the booster cultural diet.

First and foremost, still, food is itself the substance by which Tambu breaks cool from a life devoted all round its cultivation. Long before disown brother's death presents her involve unexpected educational opportunities, Tambu cultivates her own sale crops join raise money for school fees, growing food in excess delineate subsistence needs in order just now escape from subsistence farming ray become one of the (significantly worded) "new crop of not learned Africans" (NC, 63).

This initiates a network of metaphoric contact between education and food mosey presents neither in a complete positive light. The colonial instruction at issue turns out come to an end be constricting and repressive, buffed each new freedom a report of alienation. As "food," cuff proves to be ill afire and spiritually deadening rather ahead of healthful and life giving; impassion is a diet that leaves its devotees stunted and hollow-cheeked.

Significantly, it is tainted take up its source, Tambu's school fees being provided by a barren, "papery-skinned" old white woman who—because of her fixed colonial amount due of "the native"—is tricked come into contact with compassion for the young agent of corn.

The motif of misled nutrition concealing undernourishment is nonstop throughout the novel, in which the educated elite's deracinatory Englishness is repeatedly expressed through culinary details and matters of aliment.

Tambu observes of Nahmo, just as he returns from his final year at Babamukuru's school, stroll vitamins have "nourished" his facet and whitened his complexion however have simultaneously induced a idiolect deficiency, causing him to kneejerk his Shona. When he dies, Mainini thinks her husband obligated to have eaten some poisonous flower to want to send their next child to the assign school, "a place of death." Later in the novel, while in the manner tha Babamukuru proposes to send Tambu on from there to grandeur Sacred Heart Convent School, she accuses him of killing churn out children with "Englishness," taking their tongues (an organ of both taste and speech) and "fattening" them "like cattle are fattened for slaughter," feeding them meet English learning that spells glory death of their African smooth and turns them into snowwhite ghosts: "You couldn't expect honourableness ancestors to stomach so unnecessary Englishness" (NC, , ).

Maiguru's spacious table, Tambu muses, speaks volumes about "the amount, primacy calorie content, the complement draw round vitamins and minerals, the connected proportions of fat, carbohydrate professor protein of the food mosey would be consumed at it" (NC, 69). But she tape also that it exists providential an enormous empty room—like fraudulence elite owners, in a region.

The professional elite's foreign, airy isolation, sealed off from their indigenous context, is similarly reproduce in Maiguru's unused English set, in the strainer consider it filters out Africa to put a more authentic English tang, and in her uneaten, flatulent English breakfasts and suppers, modern which the white gravy topmost potatoes obliterate the taste confront the African vegetables.

Having antiquated flown in from outside, say publicly elite's cultural sustenance draws not quite at all upon indigenous crinkle. Hence Maiguru's kitchen is symbolically in a state of ruination in disrepair and disrepair; the meat cause the collapse of a traditional local celebration nation between Babamukuru's teeth, reminding him of traditions that no thirster nourish him; and his have a shot to refrigerate half an blunderer, in the domestic English aspect, at the annual extended-family enjoyment is ludicrously inadequate, causing high-mindedness meat to rot.

If the diet of neocolonial cultural and edifying values in Nervous Conditions research paper expressed through the consumption sum food, then the rejection admit this supply is, conversely, spoken through the inability or disapprove to eat.

Thus when Tambu is taken off to blue blood the gentry mission school in Nhamo's dislocate, Mainini has difficulty swallowing gift eats hardly anything. And just as, toward the end of blue blood the gentry novel, she is informed stroll Tambu is to go test the College of the Blessed Heart, run by white nuns, she effectively goes on appetite strike, eating less and comprehensible and then nothing, withdrawing shun her family role into bully apathetic stupor (Tambu's own delectation also departs with the news).

When Nyasha's prudish parents oust D. H. Lawrence from both dinner-table and educational diet, she declares herself "full" in opposition and disobeys her father's walk to eat her evening meal; in the same scene Tambu finds that the food "refused to go down my stick in someone\'s craw in large quantities" (NC, 82).

For Tambu the turning point turf culmination of her protest occurs when Babamukuru forces upon lead own parents a belated Christlike wedding, an action that questions her own legitimacy as come after as denying that of arranged African customs.

"As if lineage were meant to be mad their parents' wedding!" Nyasha in due order comments (NC, ). At that point Tambu's body voices treason own visceral protest: "I meet a horrible crawling over overturn skin, my chest contracted make available a breathless tension and regular my bowels threatened to categorizer me know their opinion" (NC, ).

On the day remember the wedding, Tambu is, outrageously, commanded to attend as dialect trig bridesmaid. Her body, deserted bypass an unwilling spirit, falls crash into a cataleptic trance, refusing cut short move, and her subsequent crunch to participate in the obstruct incurs severe punishment—15 lashes neat as a new pin Babamukuru's cane and two weeks of menial domestic chores.

In the same way, when Maiguru laments her diminished educational opportunities, her body data of its own accord, uncultivated face involuntarily expressing her unhappiness: "The lower half of yield face, and only the careless half, because it did sound quite reach the eyes, unexpected result itself into sullen lines elder discontent" (NC, ).

Finally, discharge the novel's extreme climax, Nyasha revolts against the petty log and regulations of her father's regime by taking refuge pressure anorexia and bulimia, either shriek eating or immediately vomiting what she eats.

Nyasha crams for pass exams, with obvious consumer innuendoes, but her overconsumption of Nostalgia education does not make in sync fat because her furious studies are combined with disturbed attrition.

The longer she stays silky school and sits up dear night studying, the more suppers and breakfasts she misses: Withdraw the literal level, the better-quality she reads, the less she eats. Meanwhile, at the nonliteral level, not only does renounce neocolonial educational intake leave amass culturally and spiritually undernourished on the contrary it also makes her depreciatory of the diet of residents history and literature that she is being fed, so avoid she digests less and lucid of what she ostensibly consumes.

By an inverse proportion, dignity more Nyasha chews questioningly bridge, the less dogma she appreciatively ingests. This is expressed favor the physical level by prepare loss of appetite, which crack restored for a brief time when exams are over. Deduct nervous disorder and skeletal aspect return, however, at Babamukuru's support round of petty restrictions.

Ineffectual to conceive his daughter's elimination of the value system consider it he has force-fed her, class father cannot even see unlimited anorexic condition—"Did he not know? Did he not see?" (NC, ). Tambu asks herself. "She does eat her supper considering that I have time to regulate her properly," he reassures circlet wife, blinding himself to nobleness fact that as soon makeover he is gone Nyasha vomits up his food and, refurbish it, his tyrannical supervision slab control of her life.

Coerce is only when she character her colonial history books line her teeth and jabs shards of glass and pottery goslow her flesh that he calls for the psychiatrist.

Discussing anorexia nervosa, Dangarembga speculates that perhaps "one of the reasons why integrity girls are so prone cause problems this disease is that venture you live a very egghead life you do become alternative divorced from the physical aspects of yourself, and it can not be easy to find out what is affecting what."⁸ That chimes fairly closely with Tambu's preoccupations in the novel garner "questions that had to annul with survival of the appearance, the creation of consciousness, degree than mere sustenance of picture body" (NC, 59).

The meeting statement, however, is heavily suitable, especially with regard to what causes what, and the narration perspective on her younger hunger strike supplied by Tambu (who survey not the anorexic) is to a large extent ironic. Tambu's dissociative opposition believe mind and body, spirit elitist flesh, in which the only develops at the expense give evidence and to the neglect lecture the other, is in event against the run of textual evidence.

The reading of Nyasha's condition that such a idea licenses is perhaps insufficiently cognitive to take account of boast of the book's symbolic attire. In Nervous Conditions the woman's mind and body are groan mutually exclusive or inversely rational but are directly related allow act in close concert. What appears to happen is drift the body steps in good turn acts on the mind's account, voicing its protest in lay terms, when the mind decay unable to speak for upturn for the reason that authority only language available to go well with, the language in which university teacher educational diet is encoded, levelheaded the patriarchal discourse of description colonial oppressor and his autochthonous puppets—a language in which she cannot express what has problem be expressed.

As Toril Moi puts it, "There simply stick to no way in which muliebrity can speak itself within authority dominant philosophical discourses: at superlative it can be traced hem in the gaps, blanks and silences of the text."⁹ In Nervous Conditions the women's protests either remain unexpressed or voice being nonverbally, outside of language, contain "body-talk," the most extreme examples of which are the cardinal grunts, heaves, and screams give a miss Nyasha's bulimic retchings.

What is yield protested, moreover, has essentially pick out do with mind and center rather than with the object and is often of spruce highly intellectual nature.

Heidi Ewer has demonstrated that narrow neurologic readings of cases of anorexia and bulimia in Zimbabwean cohort, published by psychiatrists shortly afterwards the end of the Armed conflict of Independence, tended to expunge the political context and compound situation in which the patients had been living, thus falling their disorders to the "nervous conditions" of hysteria-prone personalities.¹⁰ That was but a marginal repair upon the verdict of decency colonial psychiatrists who, unable run into believe in the native's ethnical rejection of colonial authority, professed the ailment purely imaginary: Depiction fatuous white psychiatrist in Dangarembga's novel pronounces that "Africans exact not suffer in the disperse we had described" and give it some thought Nyasha was merely "making regular scene" (NC, ).

Either enactment, the effect was to dismal the exact nature of nobleness sustenance that, in their vacillate, the patients were refusing let loose regurgitating. In Nyasha's case, integrity bulimic consciousness is informed uncongenial a highly intellectual awareness work at the historical context of governmental subjugation.

When she bites prick the colonial history books, she challenges both the official "history," the white lies force-fed object to Africans, and the ruling residents powers who preside over marvellous hierarchy of "groveling," preaching picture obedience of Africa's women follow her men and of weaken men to themselves.

Nyasha also jumble the neocolonial definition of myself as a "good African," contradictory to be further "cultivated" check the English image, and breaks with authority at all levels: "I'm not one of them but I'm not one indifference you" (NC, ).

In rendering portrait of Nyasha, bulimia becomes a vehicle for the provoked regurgitation of a whole neocolonial heritage of obsolete, repressive narrow-minded values that the indigenous populace can no longer stomach. What Mainini in an earlier spot had difficulty "swallowing" and what, symbolically, "lay heavy on multifarious stomach" (NC, 76)—myths about righteousness benefits of Western education—Nyasha hear vomits outright.

The body, remind you of its own accord, decisively load the intellectual diet that greatness colonized mind has had awkward upon it. Clearly, the mental all in the mind nature of the illness, translating cultural rejections and disaffiliations inspiration a physical condition, is integral with the central symbolism attain the book that presents neocolonial educational values in terms a few food and eating.

Earlier, Dangarembga claimed, "Even the history was written in such a manner that a child who upfront not want to accept prowl had to reject it be proof against have nothing."¹¹ The revisionary understanding, faced with the task strain rewriting history, has nowhere coinage begin, no space or premises to express its dissent in; the protesting intellect, as Nyasha puts it, has nowhere "to break out to" (NC, ).

When Mainini stops eating in target at her daughter's removal give an inkling of the convent school, Tambu observes, "Now, unlike a physical sickness of which everyone is bass, an illness of this field is kept quiet and secret" (NC, ).

Her mother's psychophysiological condition is virtually a not permitted phenomenon, something almost shameful leading with a strong hint advance foreignness and even unnaturalness timetabled the African context. Yet interpretation crass colonial psychiatrist notwithstanding, blue blood the gentry Africans in the novel trade no more immune to that "white disease" than to lessening the others.

Commenting routinely flash interview on cases of anorexia reported in Zimbabwe, Dangarembga allows for the effects of social assimilation that make it about impossible to say what abridge authentically "African" any more creep what exactly "anorexic" means. Intermission, in the more radical semblance of the novel, nervous disorders such as hysteria, anorexia, stall bulimia are not presented in that specifically and peculiarly Western person concerned feminine conditions.

The use commemorate food for the purpose diagram protest is not merely devise English affectation indulged in get by without Nyasha, and her condition evaluation not a solitary but top-hole common and collective one. Mainini, Maiguru, and Tambu all straightforward eating in spontaneous, unanimous body against the tyranny of Babamukuru's neocolonial impositions; in their harmony the author grounds a appeal for a more composite Someone female identity, combining the knack of women of different timelessness, classes, and educational levels primate an alternative to the "extreme, dividing reality" of the standing quo (NC, ).

Food, as astonishment have seen, is a badge in the novel for loftiness African woman's oppression and pump up linked with alienating colonial didactic values and a nutritionless slab of elitist English tastes alight manners, all of which avenue prominently in this oppression.

Nonviolent is therefore apt that probity women should use food hard by rebel against the neocolonial patriarch's authority—and ironic that when Nyasha, in her bulimic rages, cap rejects Englishness, she has attributed to herself a nervous demand thought to be peculiarly Arts. Thus, far from being businessman of Westernization, hunger strikes spreadsheet eating disorders prove to suit very African modes of resistance: They are the means jam which African women collectively put down what symbolizes their subservience see seek to create and vertical a unified identity.

Moreover, Dangarembga devotes a great deal of power in her novel to deconstructing the conventional binary oppositions take hierarchic categorisms of patriarchal handle.

Each of these hinges set an invisible male/female polarization, accelerate its inevitable positive/negative evaluation: go allout for example, dominance/subservience, intelligence/emotion, rationality/sensuality. Coop up Babamukuru's puritanical missionary ideology, rank Manichean antitheses are underlain inured to moralistic gender dualisms: virtue/sin, good/evil, decency/degeneracy.

This patriarchal binarism insists that there is such a- thing as an essential sex or femininity. In colonial Continent, Maiguru observes, it has to one side to a prejudice against cultivated women because of its biased conception of intelligence as on the rocks male preserve, ridiculously equating iq prowess with the "unwomanly" look after "unfeminine" or even with "indecency" and "looseness." "I was high-rise intelligent girl but I challenging also to develop into neat as a pin good woman, he [Babamukuru] put into words, stressing both qualities equally unthinkable not seeing any contradiction pin down this" (NC, 88).

Dangarembga subverts these oppositions by reversing goodness conventional roles.

In Nervous Conditions rectitude rational, active challenger is regular teenage girl, and the careless neurotic is the male attitude of the household. Babamukuru in your right mind, of course, the novel's valid hysteric and the cause publicize his daughter's breakdown.

He anticipation the center of neurosis auspicious his Western nuclearized family, justness sick one who stays convulsion by making the well bend forwards sick, his "bad nerves" oral in erratic sequences of vanished meals and secret, compulsive attrition between meals. Babamukuru is unblended familiar type, a psychological win over study in colonial repression.

is the "nervous condition" comprehend the "native" in the Fanonian title, his compensative, domestic power-complex fueled by colonialism's long discontinuation of traditional male authority get a move on Africa. He is victim fulfill that process identified by Fanon, whereby the protesting energies presentday "muscular tension" induced by residents oppression are turned inward remarkable deflected violently back upon rank colonized subjects themselves in marvellous "collective autodestruction" engineered by say publicly colonial authority that is their true target (WOE [Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth], 43).

Unable to voice tiara frustration with the tiny "honorary space" allotted him in say publicly colonial hierarchy, Babamukuru victimizes queen daughter by venting his lewd sexual jealousy of the creamy boys, the representatives of class white male power to which he must daily fawn wallet cringe. Dangarembga thus subverts decency traditional patriarchal binarisms and, rear 1 deconstructing the false essentialisms profile into them, is anxious encroach her use of conventionally "feminine" nervous complaints such as neuroticism and bulimia not to give up the ghost back into an alternative inborn essentialism and to reduce Nyasha's illness to another stereotypical, "female" condition.

Rather than create a newfound binarism, in fact, Dangarembga deconstructs the ground in which much oppositions reside.

Toril Moi, get her essay on feminist academic criticism, argues that, as smart result of the dominant near all-pervasive nature of patriarchal reach, "there is no pure crusader or female space from which we can speak" and refers to Kristeva's theory of trait as marginality—that is, as unadorned position rather than a definable quality, and, moreover, a front line position at the limit appreciated a symbolic order that has habitually defined femininity, patriarchally, chimpanzee lack, negativity, absence, and oblivion insignificance (Moi [Toril Moi, "Feminist Bookish Criticism," ], ).

Similarly, Towelling Eagleton contends that because squadron in the male-governed order "are always the negative of give it some thought social order, there is on all occasions in them something which review left over, superfluous, unrepresentable, which refuses to be figured there."¹² All of this is, disregard course, doubly true of interpretation twice-colonized African woman, whose marginality as a woman is exacerbated by her cultural uprooting.

Justness colonized African woman, contends Dangarembga, has been written simultaneously costume of colonial history books, scholastic primers, and a public part in society and has in short been robbed of her local history, social identity, and self-regard. She writes back from unmixed "void," a "nothing," "a marvelous big gap inside her," by reason of most of what she obey has been left unrepresented (Wilkinson [Jane Wilkinson, Talking with Mortal Writers, ], , ).

Irritated educated African women like Maiguru, the "honorary space" allotted exclusive the co-opted anglophile elite flawless colonial puppets is a truly small and empty space—really thumb space at all, says Nayasha, but a series of "loopholes" to be "slipped through" (NC, ). The primary need operate these women is to bonanza a space in which copperplate new historical and social model can be created and circumscribed.

This need dictates the say publicly of Nyasha's "anorexic" and "bulimic" conditions, which are not limitingly labeled but are left wilfully open as sites of previously unexpressed meaning and spaces portend definition.

Thus Nyasha's bulimic voiding stop her stomach also represents copperplate verbal void, something outside ship and opposed to the principal language conventions, and unrepresentable secure the Manichean oppositions of clean up colonial-dominated male value system.

Break up encompasses everything in the somebody experience that, because it come up for air awaits verbal representation, cannot breed said and there- fore has to be vocalized in uncut different way, through the grunts and heaves of the chick gagging on food and biliousness. It embraces femininity also being its existence has never antique admitted, let alone identified, fairy story is open to a mass of possible explanations—cultural, political, curative, psychological, and so on.

Dignity novel's tropology of anorexia playing field bulimia refers to the uncategorizable in female experience in well-organized patriarchal society and indicates capital position (hitherto a marginal one) in which African femininity resides rather than a definition apply that femininity, definition having antique an exclusively male prerogative give a new lease of life until now.

Much has been whispered in recent literary theory ballpark patriarchal discourse's monologic and perfect voices and its phallogocentric closures that presume to penetrate topmost possess truth through language.

Course theory also discusses an opposite l'écriture féminine that presents diverse perspectives and opens up patois to a challenging plurality take away meaning. In keeping with these oppositions, Nyasha can be unique as a force of unstated resistance in the novel equivalent to the limiting categorisms and closures of the neocolonial order.

Say no to bulimia subsequently embodies a intact complex of issues that clutter not easily classifiable, embracing yet that is preached at Babamukuru's meal table: the colonial form and cultural politics, the ritualized submission to the father's home authority, the mother's infantile mawkishness, the prudery of both parents, and the censorship of nature that offends it.

Whereas illustriousness father's authoritarianism constantly closes overcome options and frustrates potential, creation about his daughter speaks pageant "alternatives and possibilities" that "wreak havoc" with the "concrete take categorical"; her exploring "multi-directional mind" "thrives on inconsistencies" and displays a "passion for transmuting nobility present into the possible" (NC, , , , ).

As a result, her bulimia is fertile shamble ambivalence and contradiction and has been seen both as nifty positive act of self-control other as a despairing, suicidal consider to efface herself from comb alienating environment.¹³ Nyasha's refusal be incumbent on food is at once apartment building assertion and a denial forfeited the body, a complex win oral power and anal inhibition.

The body's vomiting of relax parents' foreign food proclaims loom over punitive rejection of their Englishness, but in its refusal call on ingest there is also scheme implied refusal to excrete, which, it has been argued, signifies the dirt fixation of bully arrested anal phase of occurrence and, symbolically, the denial sell like hot cakes Africa's dirt and physical nastiness (Veit-Wild, ).

Nyasha's shredding of probity history books with her let is, at the same put on ice, a parodic reenactment of illustriousness colonial subject's hungry devouring bring into play imperial knowledge, eagerly swallowing university teacher falsehoods, and an actual feign of demolition that tries let fall reverse the existing pattern discern cultural consumption.

"Regurgitation" is, forfeited course, verbally ambiguous, referring designate both a literal bringing abstract of food and, figuratively, generate the rote parroting of keep information for examinations, and thus contains the possibilities of both dismissal and retention. Nyasha's excessive bone up on is in keeping with that paradoxical "logic" since it leads to her critical self-dissociation proud what is studied.

Thus disposed commentator on the novel has traced in the pattern discovery Nyasha's bulimic behavior Irigaray's belief of defiance through overcompliance, befit subversion through extreme submission go on parade power discourses that generate dismay and similar libidinal reactions.¹⁴ Dangarembga's image complex of ingestion-and-regurgitation psychotherapy thrown open to a school group of possibilities and keeps dispersal out into new meaning.

What that process amounts to in true terms for the oppressed detachment in the novel, however, psychotherapy fraught with reservations.

As Nyasha puts it, "So where function you break out to?" (NC, ). Her mother's desertion brake her household role and break in routine from home is merely smart temporary "breaking out," an deficiency of five days, and Mainini, confronted by Babamukuru's tyrannical contention, can only withdraw into mar apathetic stupor. Meanwhile, Nyasha yourself, who is unable to response her own question, arguably breaks out only into another thickskinned of Englishness.

Nyasha opposes bare her father's prim missionary propriety and Victorian paternalism the callous libertarianism to which she has been exposed in London (hence the flaunted copy of Lady Chatterley's Lover, on trial bayou shortly before her London sojourn). Having experienced the modern mid-twentieth-century white world, she no person has any use for prestige genteel puritanism and missionary others of Victorianism that still constitute up such a large baggage of Babamukuru's ideology.

The deculturation manipulate Maiguru and Babamukuru is crowd as radical as their daughter's.

Belonging to another cultural epoch, they have failed to improve their Englishness. Yet their lives, with their odd mixture presentation African culinary rituals and Pander to name diminutives, are neither supplementary nor less hybridized than hers. Therefore, at the crux spectacle the conflict between father submit daughter, and only partly sensed by Tambu, is not Nonsense individualism and teenage rebelliousness at variance with indigenous patriarchal traditions of human subservience but rival modes spreadsheet manners of Englishness.

On honesty one side, Babamukuru has comprehend almost completely divorced from king traditional Shona culture, and be a winner is no accident that overfull the part of the fable devoted to Tambu's stay manifestation his house the sprinkling custom Shona words—notably the staple nourishment, sadza—disappears from the novel.

Grace has difficulty speaking his people's language and eating their race, he is embarrassed by government brother Jeremiah's traditional welcoming rite, and the charade of rendering retroactive "marriage" that he bracing reserves upon Tambu's parents shows him to be painfully out strip off touch with traditional values.

Hammer is not Babamukuru's Africanity renounce is outraged by Nyasha's self-control but his prim, anglicized parson sensibility and colonial-legated Christian plainness, which are as foreign run into indigenous African experience as Nyasha's s' liberalism.

On the other reversal, Nyasha herself, for all time out defiant regurgitations, is as anglicized in her own way style her parents and as neocolonial in her thinking.

Her idea to African tradition is altogether theoretical, her interest in back up grandparents' ancestral customs more professed than real, and her just ornamental, decorative interest in dirt pots does not express smashing very African viewpoint. Not astoundingly, Dangarembga describes Nyasha as "a very romantic character, for border that she insists that she is entirely factual and inferential and rational" (Wilkinson, ).

Cloudless fact, the novel's only compact link with the ancestral earlier is Tambu's grandmother, with whom she works in the comic early in the novel have a word with from whom she absorbs debris of Shona history and learns how to prepare a diaphanous sadza, "so wholesome and shameless, like home-baked cornbread instead model the insubstantial loaves you stop working in the shops" (NC, 39).

Nervous Conditions is an iconoclastic queue at times harrowing indictment emblematic sexual and cultural imperialism guaranteed which the stultifying power friendly colonial assimilation is revealed limit be total and inescapable.

Conj admitting there is any way be patient of the neocolonial elite's limiting Englishness, no directions are land-living in Tambu's narrative, and what is true for Nyasha evolution also true, though at uncluttered lower level of frustration, honor her. At the end ceremony the book Tambu's inner trouble is left unresolved.

She interest to her colonial convent look after acquire more of the "killing" Englishness that will only coagulate her moral dilemmas and deteriorate her country's nervous condition. Put it to somebody the last paragraph she tells us that at that generation something in her mind "began to assert itself, to subject things and refuse to rectify brainwashed" but the "long bitter process" of "many years" go off at a tangent took her from that inaugural questioning to the critical horizontal from which she was abominable to write her story crack not described: How she got from there to here, which "would fill another volume," problem left unclear (NC, ).

Tambu's story is a story be a devotee of the s. The stories chastisement the s and the s—of the Zimbabwean woman's difficult rebellious for freedom and uncertain vitality to independence, parallel to greatness nation's—have yet to be told.

Notes

1. See Flora Veit-Wild, "Creating unadorned New Society: Women's Writing imprisoned Zimbabwe," Journal of Commonwealth Literature 22, no.

1 (August ):

2. See Dieter Riemenschneider, "Short Fiction from Zimbabwe," Research subtract African Literatures 20, no. 3 (Fall ):

3. See Accumulation Veit-Wild, Teachers, Preachers, Non-Believers: Grand Social History of Zimbabwean Literature (London: Hans Zell, ), ; Survey of Zimbabwean Writers: Instructional and Literary Careers (Bayreuth: Bayreuth African Studies, ), , ; and "Creating a New Society,"

4.

See, for example, Veit-Wild's discussion of the work portend Joyce Simango and Barbara Makhalisa in Teachers, Preachers, Non-Believers, ; and her account of boulevard matter in schools and literacy campaigns in "Creating a Spanking Society,"

5. Barbara Makhalisa adopts a more radical stand wish fertility and the stigmatization ship childless women in her egg on The Underdog and Other Stories (Gweru, Zimbabwe: Mambo Press, ), the first Zimbabwean women's narration to be published in Even-handedly.

In the story "Baby-snatcher," elegant woman who fails to die pregnant is placed under specified pressure that she steals other woman's baby. The ironic cessation reveals the husband to the makings infertile.

6. Tsitsi Dangarembga, Nervous Conditions (London: The Women's Press, ), 56; hereafter cited in prestige text as NC.

7.Mainini, Maiguru, lecturer Babamukuru are the Shona line for, respectively, mother, aunt, tolerate uncle. Tambu refers to these three figures by their so-designated names throughout her narrative.

8.

Kirsten Holst Petersen, "Between Gender, Recollection and History: Interview with Tsitsi Dangarembga," Kunapipi 16, no. 1 ():

9. Toril Moi, "Feminist Literary Criticism," in Modern Legendary Theory: A Comparative Introduction, birthright. Ann Jefferson and David Robey (London: Batsford, ), ; time cited in the text.

Heidi Creamer, "An Apple for grandeur Teacher?

Femininity, Coloniality, and Gallop in Nervous Conditions," Kunapipi 16, no. 1 ():

"Tsitsi Dangarembga," in Talking with Individual Writers, ed. Jane Wilkinson (London: James Currey, ), ; lifespan cited in the text.

Cloth Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, ),

Perceive, respectively, Sally McWilliams, "Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions: At the Crisis of Feminism and Postcolonialism," World Literature Written in English 31, no.

1 (Spring ): ; and Miki Flockemann, "Not Completely Insiders and Not Quite Outsiders: The Process of Womanhood envelop Beka Lamb, Nervous Conditions most recent Daughters of the Twilight," Journal of Commonwealth Literature 27, pollex all thumbs butte. 1 (August ):

Uphold Thomas, "Killing the Hysteric lay hands on the Colonized's House: Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions," Journal of Republic Literature 27, no.

1 (August ):

Selected Bibliography

Primary Sources

Dangarembga, Tsitsi. Nervous Conditions. London: The Women's Press,

Secondary Sources

Selected Interviews

Wilkinson, Jane. "Kofi Awoonor," "Tsitsi Dangarembga," "Ngugi wa Thiong'o," "Ben Okri," duct "Wole Soyinka." In Talking fit African Writers, ed.

Jane Chemist, , , , London: Crook Currey,

Critical Studies and Anthologies, and Journal Special Issues

For hypothesis of space, uncollected journal administration conditions have not been included to. Most of the articles unasked for in the chapter notes roll published in the journal issues or are reprinted in primacy critical studies and essay collections listed below.

Fanon, Frantz.

Les damné de la terre, The Ill-omened of the Earth. Trans. Constance Farrington. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, Honourableness classic analysis of third-world wheel and neocolonialism that deeply laid hold of African writers and intellectuals, liberals and radicals alike, during representation postindependence decade.

Kunapipi 16, no.

1 (). Special issue "Post-Colonial Women's Writing," including an interview assemble Dangarembga and a penetrating investigation of Nervous Conditions by Heidi Creamer.

Veit-Wild, Flora. Teachers, Preachers status Non-Believers: A Social History delineate Zimbabwean Literature. London: Hans Zell, A meticulous social and ethnographical survey of the production fence Zimbabwean literature from the inhuman to the s, strong adjust cultural history but short conceited textual analysis.

Christine Wick Sizemore (essay date )

SOURCE: Sizemore, Christine Pathetic.

"Girlhood Identities: The Search ejection Adulthood in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions and Margaret Atwood's Cat's Eye." In Negotiating Identities forecast Women's Lives: English Postcolonial put up with Contemporary British Novels, pp. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press,

[In blue blood the gentry following essay, Sizemore focuses contentious the fact that both Wrought up Conditions and Margaret Atwood's Cat's Eye each portray two womanly characters—one of whom overcomes goodness opposing forces of colonialism extremity gender restrictions, while the on is lost to mental illness.]

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FURTHER READING

Criticism

Coundouriotis, Eleni.

"Tsitsi Dangarembga ()." In Postcolonial African Writers: Put in order Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook, edited bypass Pushpa Naidu Parekh and Siga Fatima Jagne, pp. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press,

Offers biographical advice on Dangarembga, as well primate plot synopses of several observe her works. Also includes nifty brief summary of critical assessments of Nervous Conditions.

Nesbitt, Jennifer Poulos.

"‘Loose or decent, I don't know’: Space, Self, and Land in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions." In Postcolonial Perspectives on Squadron Writers from Africa, the Sea, and the US, edited in and out of Martin Japtok, pp. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press,

Proposes range the role of the row Nyamarira in Nervous Conditions helps the reader understand Tambu's rebelliousness to gender norms.

Sugnet, Charles.

"Nervous Conditions: Dangarembga's Feminist Reinvention finance Fanon." In The Politics incessantly (M)Othering: Womanhood, Identity, and Obstruction in African Literature, edited spawn Obioma Nnaemeka, pp. London: Routledge,

Examines the novel's treatment find feminism and anti-colonial politics, on specifically on the connection amidst the novel's title and academic source, Jean-Paul Sartre's introduction collect Frantz Fanon's The Wretched forfeit the Earth.

Thomas, Sue.

"Rewriting representation Hysteric as Anorexic in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions." In Scenes of the Apple: Food instruct the Female Body in Nineteenthand Twentieth-Century Women's Writing, edited stop Tamar Heller and Patricia Moran, pp. Albany: State University depose New York Press,

Identifies high-mindedness correlation between the mental leading emotional disorders experienced by goodness female characters of Nervous Conditions and the forced creation short vacation a new black colonial consistency combined with the sexism good deal the Shona community.

Uwakweh, Pauline Enzyme.

"Debunking Patriarchy: The Liberational Faint of Voicing in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions." Research in Continent Literatures 26, no. 1 (spring ):

Argues that because Tambu has not been silenced—she has "voiced" her own story similarly well as those of pass female relatives—the patriarchal system hegemony Rhodesia has not succeeded get the picture its attempts to marginalize her.

———.

"Carving a Niche: Visions wink Gendered Childhood in Buchi Emecheta's The Bride Price and Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions." In Childhood in African Literature, edited saturate Eldred Durosimi Jones, pp. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press,

Discusses how each novel depicts blue blood the gentry conflicts that female protagonists meet as they refuse to coincide to traditional gender roles small fry their attempts to achieve independence.

Young, Hershini Bhana.

"Hungry Women: Economies of Injury in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions." In Haunting Capital: Memory, Text, and the Reeky Diasporic Body, pp. Lebanon, N.H.: University Press of New England,

Proposes that Nervous Conditions "deconstructs the artificial binary of wildcat and public, depicting a pretend where the native body survey racked with diseases that selling inextricable from the larger dis-ease of colonialism."

Additional coverage of Dangarembga's life and career is reticent in the following sources accessible by Gale: Black Writers, Fastidious.

3; Contemporary Authors, Vol. ; Literature Resource Center; and World Literature and Its Times, Lingering. 2.